## Passive Components in AC Circuits with Equations

There are three key passive elements used in many electrical and electronic circuits such as: Resistor, Inductor, and Capacitor. All these three elements limit the current flow but in a dissimilar manner. Since passive elements exhaust energy, they cannot amplify the electrical signals power employed to them and will always …

## Transformer Polarity Test

Transformer windings are marked to identify terminals with the same polarity. Polarity marks may either be dots or + marks. Alternatively, polarity marks may be shown by assigning the same subscripts to corresponding primary and secondary labels, H and X, respectively. Thus, when the primary terminals are named H1 and …

## Difference between Traditional Power Grid and Smart Grid

The traditional power grid is basically the interconnection of various power systems elements such as synchronous machines, power transformers, transmission lines, transmission substations, distribution lines, distribution substations, and different types of loads. They are located far from the power consumption area and electric power is transmitted through long transmission lines. …

## RLC Series Circuit Problems with Solutions

These questions are related to RL Series Circuit, RC Series Circuit, and RLC Series Circuit. These topics are covered in detail here: RL Series Circuit RC Series Circuit RLC Series Circuit Impedance in an AC Circuit 1. Define a series RL circuit: The combination of a resistor and inductor connected …

## Smart Grid Technology and Applications | Smart Grid Components

Now a day, we are often hearing about smart grid, in the news and around all of us too but most of the people do not have the basic understanding of what a smart grid really is? Just because the word ‘smart” has been attached to it, do not assume …

## Lead Acid Battery: Construction, Working, Charging

Lead-Acid Battery Construction The lead-acid battery is the most commonly used type of storage battery and is well-known for its application in automobiles. The battery is made up of several cells, each of which consists of lead plates immersed in an electrolyte of dilute sulfuric acid. The voltage per cell …

## Transformer Losses and Efficiency Calculation

Transformer Efficiency Definition The efficiency of the transformer is defined as the ratio of the power output Poutput and power input Pinput, both expressed in watts. Thus, $\begin{matrix} \eta =\frac{{{P}_{out}}}{{{P}_{in}}} & {} & \left( 1 \right) \\\end{matrix}$ Or since the input is the output plus losses, \[\begin{matrix}   \begin{align}  & \eta …

## Determination of Transformer Equivalent Circuit Parameters

In order for a model to be useful, there must be a way to determine the values of the model parameters. Two simple tests are used to determine the values for the parameters of the transformer equivalent circuit of Fig. 1 (a) and (b). The two tests are the short-circuit …

## Accuracy and Precision in Measurement | Difference between Accuracy and Precision

Analog Meter Accuracy The accuracy of all deflection instruments is specified by the manufacturer as a percentage of full-scale deflection (FSD). For example, a voltmeter with an FSD of 100 V might have its accuracy stated as ±2%. In this case, the maximum possible error at all points on the …

## Series Parallel Circuit | Series Parallel Circuit Examples

Series-Parallel Circuit Definition Not all circuits are simple series or parallel arrangements. Many are combinations of parallel resistors connected in series with other resistors or combined with other parallel groups. These can be described as a series-parallel circuit. The simplest approach to analyzing a series-parallel circuit is to resolve each …

## Voltage Regulation of Transformer at Unity, Lagging, and Leading Power Factor

Voltage Regulation of Transformer The voltage regulation of a transformer can be described as the change in the secondary voltage as the current varies from full load to no load while keeping the primary voltage constant. Generally, a transformer is utilized to supply loads that operate at basically constant voltage. …

## Equivalent Circuit of Transformer Referred to Primary and Secondary Side

All transformers have winding resistance, a core with finite permeability, leakage flux, and hysteresis and eddy current losses and are thus non-ideal. These can be represented by an equivalent circuit that allows us to analyze the transformer. Non-Ideal Transformer Characteristics A non-ideal transformer is illustrated in Fig.1. It can be …

## Voltaic Cell Equivalent Circuit | Voltaic Cell Example

Primary and Secondary Cells The simple voltaic cell is classiﬁed as a primary cell. Primary cells can supply current until the negative electrode is completely dissolved, the electrolyte is exhausted, or perhaps until polarization renders the cell useless. A secondary cell, on the other hand, can be recharged. That is, …