The article discusses common residential electric power service, emphasizing the importance of proper grounding and safety measures to prevent electrical hazards. It also highlights the use of 120V and 240V systems and the role of Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters (GFCIs) in enhancing electrical safety.
Common residential electric power service consists of a three-wire AC system supplied by the local power company. The three wires originate from a utility pole and consist of a neutral wire, which is connected to earth ground, and two “hot” wires. Each of the hot lines supplies 120 V rms to the residential circuits; the two lines are 180° out of phase.
The phasor line voltages, shown in Figure 1, are usually referred to by means of a subscript convention derived from the color of the insulation on the different wires: W for white (neutral), B for black (hot), and R for red (hot). This convention is adhered to uniformly.
Figure 1. Line voltage convention for residential circuits
Voltage Across Hot Lines
The voltages across the hot lines are given by
$$V_B-V_R=V_{BR}=V_B-\left({-V}_B\right)=2V_B=240\angle0^o$$
Power Considerations for Appliances
Appliances such as electric stoves, air conditioners, and heaters are powered by the 240 V rms arrangement. On the other hand, lighting and all the electric outlets in the house used for small appliances are powered by a single 120 V rms line.
Minimizing Line Losses
The use of 240 V rms service for appliances that require a substantial amount of power to operate is dictated by power transfer considerations. Consider the two circuits shown in Figure 2. In delivering the necessary power to a load, a lower line loss will be incurred with the 240 V rms wiring since the power loss in the lines (the I2R loss, as it is commonly referred to) is directly related to the current required by the load.
In an effort to minimize line losses, the size of the wires is increased for the lower-voltage case. This typically reduces the wire resistance by a factor of 2. In the top circuit, assuming RS / 2=0.01 Ω, the current required by the 10-kW load is approximately 83.3 A while in the bottom circuit, with RS = 0.02 Ω, it is approximately one-half as much (41.7 A). (You should be able to verify that the approximate I2R losses are 69.4 W in the top circuit and 34.7 W in the bottom circuit.) Limiting the I2R losses is important from the viewpoint of efficiency, besides reducing the amount of heat generated in the electrical wiring for safety considerations. Figure 3 shows some typical electrical wiring configurations for a home. Note that several circuits are wired and fused separately.
Figure 2. Line losses in 120- and 240-V AC circuits
Figure 3. A typical residential electrical wiring arrangement block diagram
Importance of Grounding and Neutral Connections
Today, most homes have three wire connections to their outlets. The outlets appear as sketched in Figure 4. Then why are both the ground and neutral connections needed in an outlet? The answer to this question is safety: The ground connection is used to connect the chassis of the appliance to earth ground. Without this provision, the appliance chassis could be at any potential with respect to ground, possibly even at the hot wire’s potential if a segment of the hot wire were to lose some insulation and come in contact with the inside of the chassis!
Safety Hazards of Poor Grounding
Poorly grounded appliances can thus be a significant hazard. Figure 5 illustrates schematically how even though the chassis is intended to be insulated from the electric circuit, an unintended connection (represented by the dashed line) may occur, for example, because of corrosion or a loose mechanical connection. A path to ground might be provided by the body of a person touching the chassis with a hand. In the figure, such an undesired ground loop current is indicated by IG. In this case, the ground current IG would pass directly through the body to ground and could be harmful.
Figure 4. A three-wire outlet diagram
Figure 5. Unintended connection to the electric circuit diagram
In some cases the danger posed by such undesired ground loops can be great, leading to death by electric shock. Figure 6 describes the effects of electric currents on an average male when the point of contact is dry skin.
Particularly hazardous conditions are liable to occur whenever the natural resistance to current provided by the skin breaks down, as would happen in the presence of water. Thus, the danger presented to humans by unsafe electric circuits is very much dependent on the particular conditions—whenever water or moisture is present, the natural electrical resistance of dry skin, or of dry shoe soles, decreases dramatically, and even relatively low voltages can lead to fatal currents.
Role of Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters (GFCIs)
Proper grounding procedures, such as those required by the National Electrical Code, help prevent fatalities due to electric shock. The ground fault circuit interrupter, labeled GFCI in Figure 3, is a special safety circuit used primarily with outdoor circuits and in bathrooms, where the risk of death by electric shock is greatest. Its application is best described by an example.
Figure 6. Physiological effects of electric currents
Example: Outdoor Pool Safety
Consider the case of an outdoor pool surrounded by a metal fence, which uses an existing light pole for a post, as shown in Figure 7. The light pole and the metal fence can be considered as forming a chassis. If the fence were not properly grounded all the way around the pool and if the light fixture were poorly insulated from the pole, a path to ground could easily be created by an unaware swimmer reaching, say, for the metal gate. A GFCI provides protection from potentially lethal ground loops, such as this one, by sensing both the hot-wire (B) and the neutral (W) currents. If the difference between the hot-wire current IB and the neutral current IG is more than a few milliamperes, then the GFCI disconnects the circuit nearly instantaneously.
Any significant difference between the hot and neutral (return-path) currents means that a second path to ground has been created (by the unfortunate swimmer, in this example) and a potentially dangerous condition has arisen. Figure 8 illustrates the idea. GFCIs are typically resettable circuit breakers, so that one does not need to replace a fuse every time the GFCI circuit is enabled.
Figure 7. Outdoor pool
Figure 8. Use of a GFCI in a potentially hazardous setting
Key Takeaways of Residential Electrical Wiring
Proper residential electrical wiring, grounding, and safety measures are crucial for preventing electrical hazards and ensuring efficient power delivery to appliances. Utilizing 120V and 240V systems appropriately minimizes power losses and enhances safety, particularly for high-power devices. Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters (GFCIs) play a vital role in protecting against dangerous electrical faults, especially in moisture-prone areas like bathrooms and outdoor settings.